In recent decades, the demand for custom printed circuit board assemblies (PCBAs) has surged due to the proliferation of electronic and electrical equipment (EEE). However, this growth poses critical sustainability challenges, driven by the concomitant rise in electronic waste (e-waste). In 2022, only 22% of globally generated e-waste was formally documented as recycled or collected in an environmentally sound manner. A key obstacle lies in the diffuse distribution of electronic devices across society, complicating centralized collection efforts. Even when collected, most e-waste is transported internationally to energy-intensive, cost-ineffective industrial recycling facilities, which prioritize metal recovery while non-biodegradable plastics and other materials—such as fiberglass or epoxy resins—are ultimately destined for landfills. With e-waste volumes projected to grow exponentially, addressing the socio-technical challenge of sustainably processing end-of-life PCBAs in an environmentally friendly way has become urgent.

To tackle this issue, my research investigates PCBA fabrication methods that enable localized reuse and recycling. The recent proliferation of lightweight desktop digital fabrication tools (e.g., 3D printers, CNC mills) positions decentralized actors—including makerspaces, applied research labs, small businesses, and individuals —as key players in prototyping and small-scale manufacturing. As these actors increasingly participate in local manufacturing, they hold unique potential to reconfigure production practices at the source, embedding sustainability into the design and fabrication stages to preemptively mitigate e-waste generation. More importantly, these communities are geographically embedded near end-users, where e-waste is generated and often stranded due to logistical challenges in centralized collection systems. By leveraging their tools and local presence, these actors can bypass the need for cross-border transportation to energy-intensive industrial facilities, instead enabling repair, reuse, and recycling or even redesign at the point of waste generation. This dual role—producing and reprocessing PCBAs—allows them to close the loop locally, transforming linear manufacturing workflows into circular systems.

I describe my research effort in interrelated chapters. First, I conducted a qualitative study involving stakeholders in digital fabrication (e.g., researchers, makers, lab managers) revealed systemic gaps in sustainable prototyping practices, such as knowledge gaps and lack of tools for sustainable iterative physical making. These findings informed design implications for scalable, community-driven solutions. Second, three PCBA fabrication technology archetypes are developed focusing on different aspects of collection and recycling elements in end-of-life PCBAs:
1. A novel PCB assembly method without soldering that facilitate easy disassembly and reuse of electronic component (EC) using software generated 3D printed housings.
2. A PCB renewal pipeline using conductive epoxy and desktop CNC milling machine that updates PCB boards and extend PCB lifespan beyond one life cycle.
3. A new 3D printable PCB substrate composite using fully recyclable material--PVA and liquid metal, that does not contain undegradable elements like conventional PCBs.
These innovations target distinct sustainability bottlenecks: Method 1-2 address correspondingly the recycling of ECs and the renewal of PCB boards, and can be seamlessly integrated for a full-spectrum improvement in PCBA material lifespan. Beyond conventional PCB materials and form factors, Method 3 introduces a fully recyclable substrate composite, enabling unconventional designs and functionalities while ensuring the complete recyclability of both ECs and PCB substrate materials. Collectively, these methods highlight the potential for decentralized, maker-centric strategies to mitigate e-waste challenges at the point of generation. They are designed for integration and scalability, offering practical pathways for real-world deployment to address the growing e-waste management crisis.